Group Dynamics and the impact upon the function of management Essay

Group Dynamics and the impact upon the function of management - Essay Example Basically this is the core premise and assumption supported in this paper: that it is favourable, more civil, and more ingenious to engage the entire individual in question and interaction and makes a lot of sense to engage the group in its own learning, development, and resolution (Benson 2001). For the purposes of this paper, group work practice denotes the well-organised, conscious, and methodical application of understanding about the mechanisms of collective human interaction, so as to get involved in a knowledgeable manner, or advance some wanted goal in a group context (Luthans 2005). Group work is a creative, healthy, and productive experience, performed based on open agreements, explicitly practised and clearly attained, about the task and goal of the group, responsibilities, rights of members (Greenberg 2000). Therefore, in order to address the premises of this paper various literature on managing organisational behaviour and group dynamics are used. It is evident that group situations evolve as an outcome of the energy produced by devotion and motivation divergences in the group. Exploring and understanding the adjustment in situations is an essential capability of group work practice (Mullins 2005). By observing the fluctuation in situation and determining the patterns and premises of behaviour, interaction, and relationship, it is possible to discern what needs or demands exist in the group at any specified time, and allow intervention to arise out of the given group condition (Robbins 2004). Tuckman, Garland, and his associates along with several scholars assume a sequential or linear progression in group development. This academic and systematic demarcation of group dynamics can be unknown to the experience of several novice group members as they analyse the evident disorder and uncertainty of their own

History of islamic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

History of islamic - Essay Example There are five fundamental practices of Islam required among the Muslims, the followers and believers of Islam. These are the profession of Islamic faith, prayer, charity or zakat, fasting and hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca (of which Muslims are encouraged to make one pilgrim to Mecca at least once in their lifetime). Muslims are known for their devotion to Allah for they commit to pray five times a day and they gather is Mosque to worship Allah. Origin of Islam The followers of Islam believe that Islam already existed since the time of Adam. it is believed however by non-Muslims to have originated in Mecca and Medina through Prophet Muhammad. Islam expanded to the world in the 7th century and transformed nomadic people in desert into major players of world civilization and Prophet Muhammad was at the helm of that transformation. Prior to advent of Islam in the 7th century, Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate on the south of Hedjaz as nomads which Prophet Muhammad belonged. Prophet M uhammad began receiving revelations about The Holy Quran in 610 beginning when he was forty years old. Thus, Muhammad’s death in 632 was a major blow to the then nascent Islamic community. The Muslims however responded to this challenge by establishing the institution of Caliphate that would ensure the perpetuity of historical Islam (Ahmed). After the death of Prophet Muhammad, his friend Abu Bakr who was the first adult who embraced Islam became the first caliph. He was succeeded by Umar after two years who became caliph for a decade. During Umar’s caliphate, Islam burst extensive from east to west conquering Persian empire, Syria and Egypt and importantly the capture of Jerusalem (Barkati.net). After Umar’s caliphate, Uthman succeeded him and assumed the caliphate for 12 years. Islam continued to expand during this time and was the one who was responsible for distributing the definitive text of the Holy Quran to reach all the realms of Islamic world. Ali then followed him who was known for his literary genius as well as his bravery in battle. Ali’s death marked the end of the rule of the â€Å"rightly guided† caliphs that started with Abu Bakr, then with Umar and finally with Ali. After the rule of the rightly guided caliphate, the Umayyad caliphate followed suit in 661 and was to rule the Islamic world for a century. During this time, the capital of Islam was moved from Medina to Damascus. Islamic conquest continued to expand during this time extending from western borders of China to western France. It also included North Africa, Spain Sind and Transoxiana in the East. During this time also, the foundation of the social and legal institutions of Islam were established (Barkati.net). The Umayads were succeeded by the Abbasids and again moved the capital of Islam to Baghdad. During this time, Islam was in its Renaissance as it became the center of learning and culture. It became as the center of the civilization of the worl d during that time as old texts of scholars such as Aristotle, Plato, Euclid and other thinkers were translated into Arabic to be studied extensively. The Abbasids caliphate lasted for more than 500 years until their power eventually faded and reduced to figurative heads because military power were then held by sultans and princes. When the Mongol ruler Hulagu captured Baghdad in 1258, the Abbasid caliphate finally ended as well as the great city of Baghdad together with

Coronary Artery Disease Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Coronary Artery Disease - Research Paper Example Finally, it concludes with the summary of what has been provided in the paper. Identification of the Concept: Coronary Art Disease Coronary art disease (abbreviated as CAD) may be defined as the end result of the specific process which sees accumulation, within the walls of those arteries that supply the myocardium, of atheromatous plaques (Kasliwal, 2009). The chronic systemic process of this disease is atherosclerosis. Normally, arteries’ inside walls are rather smooth and flexible, which allows easy blood flow. Plaques, which are fatty deposits, can build up in the wall of artery. This plaque will then narrow the artery and consequently stop or just reduce the blood flow. Atherosclerosis affects all body vascular beds and evolves due to a range of factors (Kasliwal, 2009). Manifested in various representations and involving numerous blood vessels in a body, when atherosclerosis reaches coronary arteries, it leads to coronary art disease; it also causes cerebrovascular disea se (this is linked to the transient ischemic attack and stroke); aortic aneurysms; intestinal ischemia; and peripheral vascular disease (Homoud, 2008). Simply put, coronary art disease (CAD) results from the hardening of coronary arteries that are found on the heart surface. Atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular disease accounts for a half of all deaths in the developed countries and one-fourth of deaths in the countries of the developing world (Homoud, 2008). In the USA, it is the leading cause of women and men mortality: in case of women it accounts for over 250, 000 deaths each year. The number is even greater in men. Charney (1999, p.3) provides data that by the age of 60 one in five U.S. males have had a coronary event whereas this has been experienced by just one in seventeen females. In the age group 29-44, the number of heart attacks due to coronary art disease is 32, 000 in men and 9, 000 in women; in the age group 45-64, the number of affected males is 218, 000 and female s 74, 000; in the group aged older than 65, the occurrences are 418, 000 for men, and 356, 000 for women (Charney, 1999, p.4). Treatment of coronary artery disease depends on the case severity. The options include medical therapy, stenting and angioplasty, and coronary artery bypass surgery (Michaels & Chatterjee, 2002). If patients’ coronary narrowings do not hinder the flow of blood, they are prescribed medications and modification of lifestyle. This is done to prevent the disease progression. In case the patient is diagnosed with atherosclerosis which clearly limits the flow blood to the arteries, he or she undergoes balloon angioplasty; also, stenting is sometimes offered. In the most severe cases, when the patient has numerous narrowings of the coronary arteries or their blockages, the surgery (coronary artery bypass graft surgery) is typically advised (Michaels & Chatterjee, 2002). Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery and the Helen Fuld School of Nursing Conceptual Framework Coronary artery bypass surgery nurses who are skilled, compassionate, and knowledgeable are essential for achieving the positive outcome in patients in the post-operative phase. This is explained by the fact that care for these patients is rather complex and intense, yet rewarding. Coronary artery bypass surgery nurses are an important part of the surgery team that enable, through their efforts, the patient to restore health and go on living. The foregoing

Article summary Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summary - Article Example Four experiments were performed. The first experiment was to predict that the Ss who had acquired precondition information would be able to comprehend the passage with no trouble and will be able to recall it easily as opposed to Ss who had not received the prerequisite information and would find it difficult to comprehend and recall. The sentences of the passage consisted of normal English. Experiments II, III, IV were same as the first experiment in that comprehension rating and recall tasks followed the acquisition phase consisting of a single auditory presentation material. Dependent variable in this study is nature of passages and materials used for experiment. Independent variable was the memory nature of the subjects. The experiments discovered that presentation of suitable semantic background had a noticeable outcome on both comprehension ratings and recall. It was found out that every Ss most probably knew the lexical meanings of the words and were eminent with sentence structures that were used in the passage. The results for experiments were tabled and it was discovered that a background of knowledge before is useful for easy comprehension and recall of a passage. However, prior knowledge to a situation is not a guarantee that it will be useful for comprehension. This article states that exposure of children to film-mediated violent models would raise the likelihood of Ss belligerence to consequent frustration. Three experiments were performed to proof the hypothesis. Three different groups were used in the experiments. Most researches on the topic have paid attention majorly on the drive plummeting purpose of dream. In the study, three varied experiments were performed to come up with conclusions. The subjects for the experiment were 48 boys and 48 girls who had been enrolled in Stanford Nursery school. Their mean age was 51 months. Two adults consisting of both sex served as models for

Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Essay Example for Free

Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Essay Diversity is about valuing individual difference, it can be visible and non-visible. Recognising everyone is unique and has individual differences such as: * Race * Gender * Age * Sex * Ethnicity * Religious beliefs * Sexual orientation * physical beliefs/ qualities * political beliefs * educational background * income * appearance see more:identify barriers to children and young people’s participation In a workplace environment it is very important to support people’s individual differences and to embrace on diversity with each individual. Diversity means more than just acknowledging or tolerating differences it’s about respecting them and understanding that we are all different in many ways. There are seven main forms of discrimination being: Direct discrimination occurs when someone is treated less favourably than another person because of a protected characteristic. Indirect discrimination occurs when a seemingly neutral provision, criterion or practice that applies to everyone places a group who share a characteristic e.g. type of disability at a particular disadvantage. Associative discrimination occurs when someone discriminates against someone because they associate with another person who possesses a protected characteristic. Discrimination by perception occurs when someone discriminates against an individual because they think they possess a particular protected characteristic. Dual discrimination occurs when someone is less favourably because of a combination of two protected characteristics. This means that it will be possible for an applicant to claim that they have been treated less favourably not just because of their race but also their gender. Detriment arising from a disability arises when you treat a person with a disability unfavourably because of something connected with their disability. This type of discrimination is unlawful where the employer or other person acting for employer knows, or could reasonably expected to know, that the person had a disability. Victimisation occurs when an employer is treated unfavourably, disadvantaged or subjected to a detriment because they have made or supported a complaint of discrimination or raised a grievance under the equality act, this policy or the harassment, bullying and discrimination policy or because they suspected of doing so. Third party harassment occurs when an employee is harassed by someone who does not work for the employing organisation such as a customer, visitor, client, contractor from another organisation. They employer will become legally responsible if the employer knows the employee has been harassed on two or more occasions and fails to take responsible steps to protect the employee. Equality Equality is the current term for â€Å"equal opportunities†. In October 2010 it was put in act to protect people from discrimination. Equality is not about treating everyone in the same way, it’s about recognising that there need s are met in different ways. We should aim to recognise, value and manage difference to enable all people contribute and realise their full potential. Inclusion Inclusion is about allowing everyone to join in group activities despite their differences. It’s about promoting equality of opportunities for all and encourages everyone to be treated fairly and valued equally.

Are Treaties a Better Source of International Law?

Are Treaties a Better Source of International Law? International treaty obligations are founded upon the maxim pacta sunt servanda (â€Å"pacts must be respected†). This is expressly recognised in the Preamble to the Vienna Convention[1] which â€Å"notes† that the principles of free consent and good faith and the pacta sunt servanda rule are â€Å"universally recognisedâ€Å". However, it might be argued that such a Convention is more a recognition of the status quo than an innovative development in international law. Article 2(1)(a) of the Convention defines a treaty as â€Å"an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designation [emphasis supplied].† This immediately draws attention to the fact that the term â€Å"treaty† is more generic than specific and covers a range of international agreements which might equally be referred to by such terms as protocols, covenants or conventions. The impact of treaties upon domestic legislation varies according to jurisdiction. The contrast is frequently drawn between the position in the US and the UK. In the former, the treaty-making power is vested under the Constitution in the President but he requires the â€Å"advice and consent† of two-thirds of the members of the Senate present and voting. In the United Kingdom it is argued that the making of treaties is an exercise of prerogative power. This is controversial: it might be suggested that prerogative power can only be exercised by the Crown. However, the preferred approach might be that of Dicey who suggests that a prerogative act is any act of government that is not authorised by statute. However, it should be noted that there is a degree of Parliamentary control. First, there exists the so-called â€Å"Ponsonby Rule† which applies to treaties which have been negotiated and signed but have not come into effect because they have not in terms of internationa l law been ratified by the parties. Under this rule, the government must notify Parliament of the treaty and must not ratify it save in cases of urgency until 21 parliamentary days have elapsed. Second, Parliament may restrict the power of the executive to enter into treaties by expressly providing that they require parliamentary consent. Finally, the making of a treaty does not automatically ensure its application in domestic law. It was held in A-G for Canada v A-G for Ontario[2] that â€Å"the making of a treaty s an executive act, while the performance of its obligations, if they entail alteration of the existing domestic law, requires legislative action.† Further, it was held in Rayner (Mincing Lane) Ltd v Department of Trade[3] that â€Å"except to the extent that a treaty becomes incorporated into the laws of the United Kingdom by statute, the courts†¦have no power to enforce treaty rights and obligations at the behest of a sovereign government or at the behest o f a private individual†. This analysis reveals treaties as having a somewhat uncertain foundation when it comes to their implementation in the states involved. This dilemma was illustrated in the controversial instance of the Maastricht Treaty on European Union and led to a challenge to the treaty-making power of the executive in R v Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs ex p Rees Mogg[4]. The treaty was to come into effect upon ratification by the Member States. In the UK there was substantial opposition to the treaty on all sides of the House and the issue raised in the litigation was whether the government had the power to ratify the treaty without such approval. The British government took the allegedly â€Å"safe† course of not referring the treaty under the Ponsonby Rules arguing instead that its ratification was an exercise of prerogative power. The Queen’s Bench Division held that this decision was not susceptible to judicial review. By contrast it might be argued that customary law is a far more amorphous concept. In international law, customary law refers to the legal norms that have developed through the regular exchanges which have occurred between states over time. Such norms gain their acceptance from agreement upon certain universal values. Two easily cited examples might be genocide or slavery which are generally held to be unacceptable behaviour by civilised nations. However, Alder[5] is sceptical: â€Å"The influence of customary values is not necessarily benevolent and custom may become dead wood but still inhibit legal change.† He cites as an example the fact that although an extension of the franchise took place during the late nineteenth century, the advance of female suffrage was inhibited by the fact that the courts refused to interpret the legislative use of the word â€Å"person† as including women. It is therefore submitted that the attempt to determine whether treaties are a better source of international law than custom is misguided. As might be observed from the above argument, treaties while possessing a high-sounding title are often little more than an attempt to formalise customary obligations that already exist between states. The division is further blurred if one pauses to consider the manner in which treaties are interpreted. Article 31 of the Vienna Convention is framed in extraordinarily wide terms: â€Å"1. A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose.† Article 32 which deals with â€Å"supplementary means of interpretation† broadens the scope of interpretation still further: â€Å"Recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion, in order to confirm the meaning resulting from the application of Article 31, or to determine the meaning when the interpretation according to Article 31: (a) leaves the meaning ambiguous or obscure; or (b) leads to a result which is manifestly absurd or unreasonable.† This blurs the distinction between treaties and custom still further since it leads to a situation in which a treaty can be interpreted so widely as to allow almost any meaning to be placed upon it thus further undermining its status as a definitive document. Finally, a further respect in which the status of treaties as an authoritative source of international law is undermined stems from the manner in which treaty obligations can be ended. Obligations in international law are regarded as arising from the consent of the contracting parties rather than from externally established norms that can be held to be permanently binding. Part IV of the Convention regulates the â€Å"Amendment and Modification of Treaties† and makes it clear that consensus is required for a treaty to remain in force. However, Article 43 is, it is submitted, highly significant: â€Å"The invalidity, termination or denunciation of a treaty, the withdrawal of a party from it, or the suspension of its operation, as a result of the application of the present Convention or of the provisions of the treaty, shall not in any way impair the duty of any State to fulfil any obligation embodied in the treaty to which it would be subject under international law independently of the treaty [emphasis supplied].† It may be argued that this provision fatally undermines the status of treaties: in effect, while treaties might rise and fall effectively at the will of the participating states, international legal obligations remain. It may be questioned, therefore, whether treaties should enjoy any real legal status or whether they should more accurately be regarded as a species of diplomacy and little more than a temporary statement of intent within the prevailing foreign policy of the parties. In conclusion, therefore, it may be suggested that while treaties have become a commonplace within international law, they should not be accorded the status with which domestic legislation, for example, is regarded. If this premise is accepted, the role of custom in international law becomes more prominent. As has been seen, it is custom that truly informs international law. Indeed, it is possible to argue that so-called â€Å"international law† is no more than the recognition of established norms between sovereign and independent states. International law cannot be regarded as stemming from any recognisable international legislature and is enforceable only as a result of the acquiescence of the states involved. In the final analysis, it might be better to dispense with the concept of â€Å"international legislation† and concentrate instead upon the agreed rules of behaviour between states. In this regard, custom becomes far more influential in determining international obligations and treaties for all their written formality and supposed authority should be regarded as little more than a written record of customary rules. Bibliography Alder, J., General Principles of Constitutional and Administrative Law, (4th Ed., 2002) Allen, M. Thompson, B., Cases and Materials on Constitutional and Administrative Law, (7th Ed., 2003) Barnett, H., Constitutional and Administrative Law, (5th Ed., 2004) Bradley, A. Ewing, K., Constitutional and Administrative Law, (13th Ed., 2003) International and Comparative Law Quarterly Merrills, J., International Dispute Settlement, (4th Ed., 2005) United Nations, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, (1969) Westlaw Footnotes [1] United Nations, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, (1969) [2] [1937] AC 326 at 347 [3] [1990] 2 AC 418 at 477 [4] [1994] QB 552 [5] Alder, J., General Principles of Constitutional and Administrative Law, (4th Ed., 2002), p.42 What Is Public Health Health? What Is Public Health Health? Wanless (2004, p.27 [online]) defines public health as the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society, organisations, communities and individuals. From this definition we can establish that the main focus of public health is to reduce health inequalities with the key concepts being to protect the public from transmissible diseases, improving service provision and to promote the health of the population (Naidoo and Wills, 2005, p.8). Health promotion and public health are intricately linked as the idea behind health promotion is to encourage individuals to have greater control over the decisions that affect their overall health. Health is a difficult term to define as people have different perceptions of what being healthy means and it is linked to the way people live their lives. The most common definition of health was set by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1948, which suggests that health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 2003 [online]). This definition suggests that health is the achievement and maintenance of physical fitness and mental stability however, each individual is unique so the term health varies from person to person and can therefore be a number of ideas that people have in their minds at different times of their lives (Pearson, 2002, p.45). Discuss the following key concepts in public health: Health inequalities The particular challenges that clients living in poverty face in relation to improving their health. Health inequalities can be described as the variation in the health status or the health gap between the socio-economic classes. Evidence suggests that there is a link between health and wealth, where people in the upper socio-economic classes have more chance of avoiding illness and living longer than those in the lower socio-economic classes and as a result, mortality rates are greater for the lower social classes than for the higher social classes (Marmot, 2010, p.16 [online] ; Acheson, 1998 [online]). Mortality rates are a useful indicator when assessing health inequalities because of its sensitivity to social conditions and even though the life expectancy years of individuals have increased, the life expectancy gap between the social classes has continued to exist (Marmot, 2010, p.45 [online]). The contributing factors to this life expectancy gap includes issues such as poor diet, obesity, smoking and higher drug and alcohol consumption (Marmot, 2010, p.37 [online]) and despite the reduction measures previously taken, this health gap between the wealthiest and the poorest continues to increase (Triggle, 2010 [online]). Access to health care services have also been reported as uneven (Acheson, 1998 [online]) however, an individuals health can be adversely affected by more factors than just the availability of healthcare and these other factors include gender, ethnic groups, religion, age, geographical location, residential deprivation, education, occupation and economic conditions (Marmot, 2010, p.39 [online]). Many of these factors can independently affect health however, those in the lower socio-economic classes tend to be disadvantaged by most, if not all, of them and the combination of these factors can lead to a significantly higher health burden for those who are living in poverty (DoH, 2010, p.15). Poverty is when individuals, families and groups do not have the income needed for the minimum standard of living and poverty can be measured as relative or absolute (Alcock, 2006, p.64). Relative poverty is when the income received is less than the average income for the country, where access to goods and services are limited compared to the rest of society and absolute poverty is where the level of income is below the required amount to afford a decent living or be able to sustain human life and as a result, only the bare minimum levels of food, clothing and shelter can be afforded (Alcock, 2006, p.64). Without sufficient money, people are less able to provide themselves and their families with adequate housing, nutrition, clothing and heating. People who live in poverty are also less likely to have the means to travel to specialist clinics and hospitals which may mean that they are less likely to attend appointments or take advantage of health screening opportunities (Kozier, 2008 , p.133). Identify a contemporary public health issue and describe its health consequences. Obesity is a term which is used to describe a condition where an individual is carrying excess body fat (WHO, 2011 [online]). It is a complex modern health problem facing society today which has both personal and economic consequences. In the UK alone the economic cost of obesity prevention, management and its consequences such as, premature death and employment absence is estimated at up to  £4.2billion per annum and is continuing to rise (DoH, 2010, p.20). As such, obesity prevention has become a public health priority, with significant focus being given to childhood obesity (DoH, 2008, p.27). Children who are obese are likely to suffer both short term and long term adverse health effects, such as increased blood pressure and hyperlipidaemia (NOF, 2011 [online]). They are also at greater risk of developing diabetes, coronary heart disease or even metabolic syndrome prematurely (WHO, 2011 [online]) and as a result, they tend to have a shorter life expectancy (DoH, 2008, p.2). Obese and overweight children also have a tendency to suffer poor psychosocial health and are therefore particularly susceptible to emotional stress, stigmatisation, discrimination and prejudice (NOF, 2011 [online]), which also increases the chances of children suffering with low self-esteem, depression and eating disorders (BMA, 2005, p.8 [online]). One of the biggest concerns of childhood obesity is that it is likely to continue on into adulthood (Coleman, 2007, p.71). Select a health promotion model and discuss how it applies to your chosen public health issue. The prevention of obesity is easier than the treatment and prevention relies heavily on education, therefore for this issue the education model will be used. The aim of this approach is to give information to ensure that each individual has the knowledge and a basic understanding about obesity, which allows the individuals to make informed choices about their own lifestyles (Ewles and Simnett, 2003, p.44). A good example of this approach is the school health education programmes, which not only increases the childs knowledge but also helps the child to the learn skills of healthy living (Ewles and Simnett, 2003, p.44). Educational programmes could also be targeted at the parents and could involve the promotion of breastfeeding, the delaying of weaning onto solid foods to infants and building an awareness of the types of foods that are available within home. Parental education could also focus around building the self-esteem of the child and an understanding of how to address the childs psychological issues. Education in early childhood could also include information about healthy diets, workshops (which could include food tasting) and physical activity (NICE, 2006, p.75 [online]). Identify public health strategies relating to this public health issue at the following levels: Local National and Global The rise in obesity combined with the increased public awareness has prompted new public health initiatives. The white paper Healthy weight, healthy lives, in conjunction with the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidance, sets out guidelines for action on obesity (DoH, 2008 ; NICE, 2006 [online]). Policies and strategies were introduced following the recommendations outlined in these papers and were developed with the main focus being to assist in the prevention and management of obesity and to encourage healthy eating and physical activity (NICE, 2006 [online]). These strategies include school based educational and physical activity programmes and public health messages through the media such as, television, radio, poster campaigns and leaflet distribution. Local authorities have developed strategies which tackle obesity from a local level. A great example of a local initiative within the northeast is Medal Motion, which encourages children to walk or cycle to school whilst also working towards preventing obesity (Local Motion, 2011 [online]). Each locality has different needs and local strategies that are in place have been developed in conjunction with government initiatives and influenced by national policy such as, healthy schools. National interventions include the five a day scheme which encourages people to eat more fruit and vegetables, extended from this is the school fruit and vegetable scheme which helps increase the childs awareness of the importance of eating fruit and vegetables (NHS, 2011 [online]). Change4life is another example of a nationwide initiative which was launched to improve childrens diets, increase their physical activity and which, in turn, improves their chances of living longer, healthier lives (NHS Northeast, 2011 [online]). The national child measurement programme is a national strategy which requires school nurses to weigh and measure all four to five year olds and ten to eleven year olds annually, this monitors prevalence and evaluates obesity reduction strategies (DoH, 2011 [online]). Other national initiatives include Sure Start, school sports programmes, simplified food package labelling and the regulation of television advertising on childrens channels. The WHO has launched a major consultation into the diet-related disease and stated that their global strategy would focus on diet, physical activity and health (WHO, 2004 [online]). This global preventative strategy includes reducing the childs energy intake and improving their intake of nutritional foods, increasing physical activity and reducing time spent in sedentary behaviour, such as watching television (WHO, 2004 [online]). The WHO developed a framework and implementation toolkit which is used to monitor and evaluate their Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health (WHO, 2008 [online]). Following on from this framework, the WHO called on governments to take action against food marketing to children and to regulate marketing messages that promote unhealthy dietary practices (WHO, 2007, p.9 [online]). Give an example of how nurses can improve health for this issue The recent white paper called Healthy Lives, Healthy People (DoH, 2010) sets out guidelines for healthcare professionals to support individuals to make their own decisions and choices about their health. Nurses can optimise their role by offering health promotion to individuals who seek help and support in relation to obesity, whilst acting as an advocate for healthy lifestyles and ensuring the clinical environment supports and encourages children to make healthy choices. Healthcare professionals, especially school nurses, are ideally placed to identify if a child is overweight and screening, parental support and health promotion activities should be routinely addressed where possible. Children and families should be offered support to manage weight sensibly, by discussing small incremental changes in family behaviours, and by making any necessary referrals for specialist investigation, psychological help or specific dietician advice (NICE, 2006, p.49 [online]). It is vitally important that the nurse possesses the necessary skills and adequate knowledge on healthy eating in order to educate children and their families (NICE, 2006, p.44 p.101 [online]). Additionally, the necessary resources should be readily available such as advice leaflets, to pass on to parents to aid in the communication and teaching process. Evidence suggests that when talking to children and families about obesity and food behaviours, that problem-solving techniques can have some success (Ewles, 2005, p.95) and as such, nurses can interpret when and where eating patterns become an issue and can therefore offer advice and guidance on how to manage in difficult situations (NICE, 2006, p.148 [online]). Why do people find it difficult to engage in health improvement interventions? A number of factors can inhibit access to healthcare such as language, age, attitudes to healthcare, disabled access, financial barriers and geographical location (Kozier, 2008, p.133). A geographical barrier can be that some patients may have to travel long distances for certain services or to receive specific treatments. The travel costs for these services may be relatively high and access to transport may also be limited. There is also the issue of the postcode lottery of healthcare services where some treatments are only available in certain parts of the country and not in others, such as the Herceptin postcode lottery (Kozier, 2008, p.133). Cost also affects most individuals as some services are not free, such as dental treatment and eye tests and some individuals also have to pay prescription charges which can lead to illnesses being left untreated, as some people afford to pay for their prescriptions. Additionally, due to limited income, some individuals may not have access to the internet and therefore may not be able to access certain services such as Choose and Book, which is primarily an internet based appointment booking service. Other issues that can inhibit access to healthcare include the cost of health insurance, lack of knowledge and awareness and lack of a support network.

Chemicals That Fix the Brain :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Chemicals That Fix the Brain The discovery of how the brain heals itself began, as discoveries often do, with a question: Why do children who suffer brain damage often recover fully, while adults with the same kind of damage are permanently incapacitated? University of Wisconsin neurobiologist Ronald Kalil was among those who pursued the question (15). His studies in young cats showed that entire networks of brain cells could be routed around damaged areas. Young animals whose primary vision centers were destroyed could still learn to see normally, he found, because cells in another part of their brains took up the job of processing vision. Yet, adult animals suffering the same destruction had no such luck (7). What was the difference? Kalil finally determined that young animal brains are awash in chemicals called growth factors, while adult brains have far lower levels (11). He surmised that the abundance of growth factors helps the new brains organize themselves. When damage occurs, the growth factors simply start over and rebuild damaged networks. Adults have fewer growth factors because their brains, although they constantly undergo changes, are, for the most part, completed. All of which led to another question: Would adding extra growth factors prevent permanent damage in adult brains? Soaking tiny sponges with a variety of growth factors, Kalil placed them inside newly damaged brain areas of adult cats. He and his colleagues found that these adult brains acted more like infant brains: Instead of suffering permanent damage, the adult brains repaired themselves. This ability of the brain to rewire itself, grow new parts for damaged cells, and even make new cells-its "plasticity," was thought to be impossible only a few years ago (4). Brain cells, medical students were taught, were hardwired like so many computer transistors. Once they burned out, that was the end. Brain cells certainly could not sprout new communications lines to take over the jobs of nonfunctioning cells, it was said. Nor could they regenerate themselves after being hurt. Moreover, they absolutely could not divide to replenish the brain with new cells. All those "truths" are being tossed out as brain research undergoes a revolution fueled by molecular biology's remarkable ability to reveal the secrets of cells. Scientists now can hunt down and copy genes that govern cell reassembly and harness them for use in repairing damaged brains (3). The power of these tools was stunningly demonstrated with the discovery of a gene called NeuroD, which plays an essential role in the embryonic development of the brain and nervous system (6).